History

National Movements

When all these regional wars of independence were unsuccessful, Indonesian leaders started a more organized struggle against Dutch colonialism known as Indonesia's national movements for independence.

This period was pioneered by the founding of the "Boedi Oetomo" (Noble Conduct) movement on the 20th of May 1908, which was initially designed as a cultural association for Indonesian intellectuals, turned into politics, stimulated by Japan's victory over Russia in 1901, which accelerated modern national movements throughout Indonesia. The founder of "Boedi Oetomo" was Dr. Wahidin Sudirohusodo, supported by Dr. Soetomo, Gunawan and Suradji.

In 1911, the Society of Moslem Entrepreneurs "Sarekat Dagang Islam" was founded by Haji Samanhudi and others which was aimed at encouraging and sponsoring the interest of Indonesian business within the Dutch East Indies. However, in 1912 this middle class entrepreneurial organization turned into a political party and called them "Sarekat Islam" led by HOS Tjokroaminoto, Haji Agus Salim and others.

In 1911, a Progressive Moslem Organization "Muhammadiyah" was established by Hajji Dahlan in Yogyakarta aimed at social and economy reforms.

In December 1912, an Indonesian Party "Partai Indonesia" was founded by Dr. Douwes Dekker, later named Setyabudhi, with Dr. Tjipto Mangunkusumo and Ki Hajar Dewantoro (Suwardi Suryaningrat) striving for complete independence for Indonesia from the Dutch. These three leaders of the party were later exiled by the Dutch colonial government of the Dutch East Indies in 1913. In 1914, Communism was introduced in the Dutch East Indies by Dutch nationals, Sneevliet, Baars, and Brandsteder.

In May 1920, Sarekat Islam was split into a right and left wing faction, the latter of which formed the Indonesian Communist Party "Partai Komunis Indonesia" (PKI) under the leadership of Semaun, Darsono, Alimin, Muso and others.

THE POWERLESS PEOPLE'S COUNCIL "VOLKSRAAD"

In 1916, the Sarekat Islam Party held its first congress in Bandung and advocated in its resolution self-government for Indonesia in cooperation with the Dutch. When the Sarekat Islam demanded the Dutch Colonial Government of Dutch East Indies for minimum social legislation in the colony, this demand was countered by the Dutch by setting up powerless People's Council named the "Volksraad" in 1918 which was purely of an advisory nature to Dutch colonial rulers. The Indonesian representation within the council was by indirect election through regional councils, whereas part of the number of its members consisted of appointed colonial officials. It later developed into a semi-legislative assembly in which body some Indonesian prominent nationalist leaders, such as Dr. Tjipto Mangunkusumo, HOS Tjokroaminoto, Abdul Muis, Dr. GSSJ Ratulangi, MH Thamrin, Wiwoho, Sutardjo Kartohadikoesoemo, Dr. Radjiman, Soekardjo, and others, were members of mentioned body.

Under pressure of social unrest in the Netherlands at the end of World War I in Europe, the Dutch pledged to the Indonesians to grant self government to Indonesia known as the "November" pledge which was never realized.

Besides the "Volksraad" there was another body called the "Raad van Indie" whose members were appointed by the Ducth. Achmad Jayadiningrat and Sujono were among the very few Indonesian members of the "Raad van Indie."

RESTRICTION OF CIVIL LIBERTIES

Worsening economic conditions and increasing labor strikes in the Dutch East Indies prompted the Dutch colonial government in 1923 to put severe restrictions on Indonesian civil liberties and made further amendment to the colonial constitutional law and penal codes. Restrictions were put on the freedoms of assembly, speech and expression in writing.

FURTHER GROWTH OF INDONESIAN ORGANIZATION

Despite those restrictions by the Dutch colonial government, in 1922, an organization aimed at promoting Indonesian national education calling themselves "Taman Siswa" was founded on the 3rd of July of mentioned year by Ki Hadjar Dewantoro.

In 1942, the Indonesian Students Association "Perhimpunan Mahasiswa Indonesia" was founded by Dr. Mohammad Hatta, Dr. Sukiman, and others. This student's association had put more leverage to the Indonesian Nationalist Independence Movements in Indonesia in general.

In 1926 till 1927, Communist revolts, led by the Indonesian Communist Party "PKI" broke against Dutch colonial rule. In November 1926 it rebelled in West Java and in January 1927 in West Sumatra. After Dutch suppression of these communist rebellions many Indonesian non-communist nationalist leaders were exiled to Tanah Merah, which the Dutch called "Boven Digul" in Papua. Dr. Tjipto Mangunkusumo was exiled to Bandaneira.

In February 1927, a federation of all Indonesian parties was called into being by Dr. Mohammad Hatta, called the "Perhimpunan Politik Kebangsaan Indonesia" (PPKI). Dr. Mohammad Hatta and Achmad Soebardjo and some other members of the federation attended the First International Congress of League Against Imperialism and Colonial Oppression in Brussels together with Jawaharlal Nehru and many other prominent nationalist leaders from Asia and Africa.

In July 1927, Ir. Soekarno, Sartono and others formed the Indonesian Nationalist Party (PNI), which adopted the Bahasa Indonesia as the official language. It exerted a militant policy of non-cooperation with the Dutch colonial authorities on the basis of a permanent conflict of interest between Indonesian nationalism and Dutch colonialism.

In the same year an all Indonesia's Nationalist Movement was set up among the Indonesian youth and women replacing earlier established youth organizations based on regionalism, such as the "Young Java," "Young Sumatra," and Young Ambon," etc.

On the 28th of October 1928, during the Second Indonesian Young Congress held in Jakarta, a pledge was made by the Indonesian Youth to strive for "One Nation," "One Motherland," and "One Language." This youth pledge is today still commemorated every year. "The Indonesia Raya" song, which later became Indonesia's National Anthem, was for the first time introduced at the Second Indonesian Youth Congress by its composer, Wage Rudolf Supratman.

Meanwhile, the Technical University College was set up in Bandung in 1920. The Law University College was opened in Jakarta, replacing the former Law School in 1924. The Medical University College, replacing the former Medical School was opened in August, 1927. All of these University Colleges were later united into the University of Indonesia in 1946 during Indonesia's independence.

In 1929, Dutch colonial authorities in the Dutch East Indies concerned about the developing national conscience and the increasing urge for independence by the Indonesian arrested PNI leader, Ir. Soekarno in December of mentioned year which caused great discontent among the Indonesians.

Meanwhile in 1930, the world suffered from an economic and monetary crisis, which had a great impact in the Indies being a raw material producing colony of the Dutch. A balanced budget policy for the colony was strictly carried out detrimental to the economic and educational life of the Indonesians. Other leaders of the PNI, Gatot Mangkupradja and Maskun Supriadinata were tried in court on charges of "plotting" against the colonial regime. Ir. Soekarno was released in September 1931 but again exiled in August 1933 and remained in Dutch custody till the Japanese invasion in 1942.

In January 1931, Dr. Soetomo aimed at elevating the status of the Indonesian people on the basis of nationalism founded the Indonesian Unity Party, the "Persatuan Bangsa Indonesia." In April of the same year, the PNI was abandoned and followed by the founding of another party, the Indonesia Party or "Partai Indonesia" by Sartono, LLM, based on nationalism and Indonesia's self-supporting movement. In the same year, Sutan Syahrir founded the Indonesian National Education Group or "Pendidikan Nasional Indonesia," abbreviated as the new PNI, which was joined by Dr. Mohammad Hatta.

In 1933, a mutiny broke out on the Dutch warship "Zeven Provincien," the Indonesian nationalists were held responsible for this. In 1934, Sutan Syahrir, Dr. Mohammad Hatta and other nationalist leaders were arrested by Dutch colonial authorities and sent into exile till 1942.

In 1935, under the leadership of Dr. Soetomo a merger of the "Persatuan Bangsa Indonesia" organization with the "Boedi Oetomo" was brought about, aimed at striving for the independence of Greater Indonesia, the "Parindra."

INDONESIAN PETITION

In July 1936, Sutardjo submitted to the "Volksraad" the Indonesian petition calling for greater autonomy for Indonesia. This petition was flatly rejected by the Dutch dominated "Volksraad."

In 1937, Dr. AK Gani founded the Indonesian People's Movement, "Gerakan Rakyat Indonesia," which was based on the principles of Indonesian nationalism, social independence and Indonesia's self-supporting efforts.

In 1939, the All Indonesia Political Federation "GAPI" called for the establishment of Indonesia's full-fledged parliament, which was flatly rejected by the Dutch government in Holland in 1940. They also demanded an Indonesian National Military Service in order to defend Indonesia in times of war. This demand was also rejected in spite of the grave international situation, which proceeded the outbreak of the Second World War, the situation of which called for fundamental and progressive reforms in colonies and dependencies in Asia in general.

JAPANESE OCCUPATION

After the Japanese attacks of Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, Japanese Armed Forces went southwards and occupied several Southeast Asian countries. After the British defeated Singapore, Japanese forces invaded the Dutch East Indies whereupon the Dutch colonial army surrendered to the Japanese in March 1942. Ir. Soekarno was released from his detention. The Japanese introduced Japan's "Great East Asia Co-Prosperity Idea," which became unpopular in Indonesia as the Indonesians realized that Japanese occupation was just an alternate colonialism substituting Dutch colonialism. For the sake of furthering the course of Indonesia's independence however Ir. Soekarno and Dr. Mohammad Hatta were giving limited assistance to Japanese occupation authorities on the surface while other Indonesian nationalist leaders went underground to stage insurrection all over Java, such as in Blitar (East Java), Tasikmalaya and Indramayu (West Java), Sumatra and Kalimantan.

Due to the hardships suffered by the Japanese in waging the Pacific war caused by interruptions of their supply lines and by Indonesian insurrections, the Japanese occupation forces in Indonesia ultimately gave in to recognize the Indonesian Red and White colored flag as the Indonesian national flag which was followed later by the recognition of the "Indonesia Raya" as Indonesia's National Anthem, and the "Bahasa Indonesia" as Indonesia's National Language.

After persistent demands by the Indonesians for complete Indonesianization of the Civil Administration in Indonesia, the demands were ultimately met the Japanese. This became Indonesia's basis to further build up the foundation for the proclamation of independence of the Republic of Indonesia.

Proclamation of independence …..sian insurrections, the Japanese occupation forces in Indonesia ultimately gave in to recognize the Indonesian Red and White colored flag as the Indonesian national flag which was followed later by the recognition of the "Indonesia Raya" as Indonesia's National Anthem, and the "Bahasa Indonesia" as Indonesia's National Language.

After persistent demands by the Indonesians for complete Indonesianization of the Civil Administration in Indonesia, the demands were ultimately met the Japanese. This became Indonesia's basis to further build up the foundation for the proclamation of independence of the Republic of Indonesia.

PROCLAMATION OF INDEPENDENCE

Text of Proclamation

The final defeat of Japan after the dropping of the atomic bomb in Hiroshima and Nagasaki on the 6th and 9th of August 1945 prompted the Japanese to surrender unconditionally to the Allies. This constituted an ample opportunity for Ir. Soekarno and Dr. Mohammad Hatta to proclaim Indonesia's independence on the 17th of August 1945. The Republic of Indonesia came into being based on Pancasila under a constitution, with strong Presidential powers, a Parliament, Supreme Advisory Council, State Audit Board and a People's Consultative Assembly as the embodiment of people's sovereignty in free Indonesia, all of which were adopted on the 18th of August 1945. This 1945 Constitution is still in force up till now. The Red and White flag was officially accepted as the National Flag of Indonesian and the Bahasa Indonesia as the National Language. Ir. Soekarno was elected as the first Indonesian President and Dr. Mohammad Hatta as Vice-President. On the 5th of September 1945, a Presidential Cabinet was formed with President Soekarno as Premier.

WARS OF INDEPENDENCE AGAINST DUTCH

Soon after the independence proclamation, British troops as a component of the Allied Forces landed in Indonesia with the task of disarming Japanese Forces in Indonesia. Dutch troops have meanwhile used this opportunity to also land in Indonesia however with a different purpose, i.e. to restore the Dutch East Indies. The Dutch were in the beginning aided by the British Forces under General Christson which was confirmed later by Lord Louis Mountbatten, British Commander of the Allied Forces in Southeast Asia and based in Burma, whereas the British Allied Forces' task was to be the repatriation of Allied Prisoners of War and Internees and the disarming and internment of Japanese troops in Indonesia.

Fierce fighting broke out in Surabaya on the 10th of November 1945 between the British troops and Indonesian armed volunteers, which culminated in "Allied Forces" attacks by battle ships, airplanes tanks and armored cars in which Brigadier Mallaby died. The newly recruited republican army was not yeat ready to face such an all-out attack by such superior and well-armed Allied Forces fresh from their victorious battle against Hitler's Nazi forces in Europe. The Indonesian Armed Forces therefore withdrew from urban battles and organized themselves into guerilla forces, which put heavy pressures on the invading troops. The newly Republican Armed Forces fought along with the people armed units. Meanwhile, Dutch troops, under the pretext of representing Allied Forces, grew in number and attacked Indonesian Republican strongholds twice in their military actions between 1945-1949.

During the 1948 Dutch military action against the Republic, the Indonesian Communist Party unilaterally proclaimed the "Indonesian People's Republic" in Madiun (East Java), armed themselves and began to attack republican forces, from the rear. Squeezed by Dutch forces and communist forces, the Indonesian people and the republican army fought their enemies back in two fronts.

Since its inception, Indonesia experienced threats from without and from within.

DIPLOMACY VIS-À-VIS FIGHTING

On the 11th of November 1945, Vice-President Hatta issued a Manifesto laying down the policy of peace with the whole world and the principle of good neighbor policy for the new Republic.

On the 14th of November 1945, the newly appointed Prime Minister, Sutan Sjahrir introduced a parliamentary system in the republic with political party representation.

On the 22nd of December 1945, Sutan Sjahrir announced Indonesia's acceptance of the British proposals to disarm and confine to internment camps, 25,000 Japanese troops within Indonesia's territory, which successfully carried out by the Indonesian National Army "TNI." On the 28th of April 1946, the transportation of the Japanese troops to be emigrated, took place from all places in Indonesia.

When fighting with Dutch troops continued, even in urban areas, including Jakarta, the seat of the Government was moved from Jakarta to Yogyakarta on 4th January 1946.

THE INDONESIAN QUESTIONS IN THE UNITED NATIONS

Since the war in Indonesia dragged on which was considered as endangering the maintenance of international peace and security, in line with the principles of the United Nations as stipulated in Article 24 of its Charter, the question of Indonesia was officially brought before the Security Council by the Ukranian Soviet Socialist Republic. Soon afterwards the first official meeting of representatives of the Republic of Indonesia and the Netherlands took place on the 10th of February 1946, under the chairmanship of Sir Archibald Clark Kerr.

Besides Indonesian forces putting stiff resistance against Dutch military aggressions and therefore dragging the war, the Indonesian government also conducted diplomatic offensive against the Dutch.

With the good offices of Lord Killearn of Great Britain, Indonesia and Dutch representatives met and negotiated together at Linggarjati in West Java in which negotiations the Dutch were forced to recognize the "de facto" sovereignty of the Republic of Indonesia over the territories in Java, Sumatra and Madura. The Linggarjati Agreement was initiated on the 15th of November 1946 and officially signed on the 25th of March 1947.

This agreement was in fact in violation of Indonesia's independence, which was proclaimed on the 17th of August 1945. Therefore, guerilla fighting continued putting heavy pressure on Dutch troops wherever they exercised their military operations.

The first Dutch military aggression was launched in July 1947, in which Dutch troops intensified from their urban military bases, their military aggression against Indonesia guerilla strongholds. This first military aggression was ended by the signing of the "Renville Agreement" on the 17th of January 1948, under the auspices of the United Nation's Security Council, initiated by representatives of India and Australia.

It was in September 1948 that Muso, leader of the Indonesia's Communist Party (PKI) led the communist coup and attacked the Indonesian Army from the back, but was finally defeated and killed.

On the 19th of December 1948, the Dutch, ignoring the Renville Agreement launched their second military aggression against the Republic and succeeded to penetrate into the then Republican capital, Yogyakarta, which resulted in the capture of President Soekarno, Vice-President Dr. Mohammad Hatta and other Republican leaders whom they interned on the island of Bangka, off the east coast of Sumatra.

The Indonesian Government still functioned under caretaker Syafruddin Prawiranegara who headed the Republican Emergency Government with headquarters in Bukittinggi, West Sumatra.

On the 20th of January 1949, initiated by Jawaharlal Nehru of India, 19 nations gathered in New Delhi at the Asian meeting which adopted a resolution submitted to the United Nations demanding the Dutch to surrender complete sovereignty to the Republic of Indonesia by 1st January 1950. It also demanded the Dutch to surrender all Indonesian prisoners and territories seized during their military actions to the Indonesian Republic.

On the 28th of January 1949, the UN Security Council adopted a resolution on a ceasefire, the release of republican leaders and their return to Yogyakarta.

On the 7th of May 1949, an agreement was signed between Indonesia's Emissary, Mohammad Roem and Dutch Emissary Van Royen calling for the end of hostilities, the restoration of the Indonesian Republican Government to Yogyakarta and the holding of further negotiations, under the auspices of a UN Commission at a Round Table Conference between Indonesia and the Dutch.

WORLD RECOGNITION OF INDONESIA'S SOVEREIGNTY

Indonesian Representative Office in Colombo, Ceylon

On the 23rd of August 1949, the Round Table Conference was held in The Hague under the auspices of the United Nations. The conference was concluded on the 2nd of November 1949 in which an agreement was reached that Holland was to recognize the sovereignty of the Republic of Indonesia.

On the 27th of December 1949, the former territory of the Dutch East Indies ceased to exist and became the sovereign Federal Republic of Indonesia under a federal constitution based on a parliamentary system providing Cabinet responsibility of Parliament, while the sovereignty over Papua (former West New Guinea) was suspended till further negotiations between Indonesia and Holland. This issue had since become the source of perpetual conflict between the new Republic and Holland, which dragged on for more than 13 years. And since September 28, 1950, Indonesia became a member of the United Nations.

THE UNITARY STATE OF THE REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA

On the 15th of August 1950, the original proclaimed Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia was restored however, retaining a liberal democratic system of a cabinet answerable to the House of the People's Representatives, which became the source of frequent changes of cabinet or governments. This situation naturally could not be a firm basis for national development in a developing country, which had just become an independent state, where no political stability could be secured.

With the reinstatement of the Unitary State, the President became Chief Executive and Mandatary of the People's Consultative Assembly. He is to be assisted by ministers of his choice and at his discretion and who can not be discharged by the House.

THE FIRST GOVERNMENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA

The Dutch East Indies was since its unconditional surrender to the Japanese Armed Forces on the 7th of March 1942, occupied by Japanese occupation forces. The official surrender took place at 16.00 hours of that date in which the Dutch East Indies' Governor General, Mr. Tjarda van Starkenborgh Stachouwer and Dutch East Indies Armed Forces Commander, Ter Poorten signed the documents of surrender to the Japanese Commander, General Imamura. It was only after the 14th of August 1945, i.e. when Japan surrendered to the Allies after the atom bomb dropped at Hiroshima that a power vacuum existed in the Indonesian archipelago. Earlier, Soekarno and Hatta had pressed the Japanese for yielding to Indonesia's demand to set up a committee for the preparation of Indonesia's independence, consisting of 26 members comprising Indonesian nationalist leaders chaired by Ir. Soekarno. This forum provided ample opportunity for these Indonesian nationalist leaders to debate, weight and contemplate about the ideological basis, the structure of the state and the constitution to be, for a sovereign Indonesia. After hectic debates which went on and which were seldom not interrupted by extreme conflicting views, Soekarno emerged as the over-riding leading figure who won the acceptance of the "Pancasila" principles to be the ideological basis for a sovereign Indonesia. It was also at this forum that Indonesia's first constitution, the 1945 Constitution, was debated and ultimately adopted.

This power vacuum prompted Soekarno and Hatta to proclaim Indonesia's independence on the 17th of August 1945, followed by the election of Soekarno and Hatta as Indonesia's first President and Vice-President. On the same day, the Committee for the Preparation of Indonesia's independence dissolved itself.

The first year of the sovereign Republic of Indonesia under the Presidency of President Soekarno was marked by a war of defense against the Dutch who attempted to reinstate the former colony of the Dutch East Indies. The Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) disagreed with the principles of Pancasila and in 1948 staged an armed and bloody rebellion against the newly proclaimed Republic of Indonesia and unilaterally proclaimed a Communist "People's Republic" in the region of Madiun (East Java).

When the Dutch, due to Indonesia's armed resistance and pressed by world opinion as manifested in the UN resolution finally recognized Indonesia's independence, another armed rebellion flared up pressing for Islamic state under the leadership of Kartosuwirjo who coined his demand as "Darul Islam."

Since then many other armed rebellion emerged such as the "Queen of Justice" (APRA) rebellion led by an ex-Dutch Army Captain, Turco Westerling. Outside Java, other armed revolts were staged such as in Maluku where demobilized ex-colonial army-men faithful to the Dutch Crown proclaimed the Republic of South Maluku. In South Sulawesi ex colonial army-man, Andi Aziz also rebelled. In Kalimantan Ibnu Hadjar led another armed revolt, while in Sumatra and later linked up with North Sulawesi rebellions against the central Government demanded separation like the case in the South Maluku. At the end of this chain of armed rebellion emerged the second communist rebellion on 30rd of September 1965 led again by the Indonesian Communist Party manifested in an abortive coup attempt by kidnapping and murdering six top army generals of the Defense Department.

The first Republican Government under President Soekarno after the recognition of independence was marked by efforts to unite the Indonesian people and to claim the Dutch occupied Province of Papua. The political pattern which governed the new republic was a liberal parliamentary democracy based on a provisional constitution of the Federal Republic of Indonesia as imposed by the Dutch after its abandonment of the 17th of August 1950. Political strive was rampant due to the multi-political party system Indonesia copied from the then existing system in Holland. This system has not seldom led towards a dichotomy of extreme political and ideological view which found linkages between parliamentary and armed conflicts.

President Soekarno succeeded in carrying out Indonesia's first General Elections in 1955 in which 47 political parties contested to elect their representatives for the House of People's Representatives and for the Constituent Assembly, which was to lay down a new constitution for the Republic. This election was won by the Indonesian Nationalist Party (PNI), the Nahdlatul Ulama Moslem Scholars Party (NU), the Muslim Majelis Sjura Party (Masyumi) and the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI). Their elected representatives in the Constituent Assembly failed to reach a consensus on laying down a new constitution which compelled President Soekarno to dissolve the Constituent Assembly and the House which he was constitutionally entitled to and called for the reinstatement of the 1945 Constitution.

THE ASIAN-AFRICAN CONFERENCE

The Asian African Conference, April 1955, in Bandung

President Soekarno had to his credit the holding of the Asian-African Conference in Bandung, West Java, from April 18 to 24, 1955. The initiative was taken by Indonesia, India, Pakistan, Myanmar and Ceylon (Sri Lanka). The conference was attended by delegates from 24 Asian and African countries. The purpose of the meeting was to promote closer and amiable cooperation in the economic, cultural and political fields. The resolution adopted became known as the "Dasa Sila", or "The Ten Principles," of Bandung. It strived for world peace, respect for one another's sovereignty and territorial integrity, and for non-interference in each other's internal affairs. The resolution also sought to uphold the human rights principles of the United Nations.

The Asian-African Conference became the embryo of the Non-Aligned Movement. The seeds that sprouted in Bandung took firm root six years later when 25 newly independent countries formally founded the Non-Aligned Movement at the Belgrade Summit of 1961. Since then the membership of the Movement has grown to its present strength of 112 member countries.

THE BEGINNING OF THE NEW ORDER GOVERNMENT

Over-confident of their strength and precipitated by the serious illness of President Soekarno, who was undergoing treatment by a Chinese medical team from Beijing, the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) attempted another coup on September 30, 1965. The uprising, however, was abrupt and quickly stamped out by the Armed Forces under Major General Soeharto, then Chief of the Army's Strategic Command.

On the night of September 30, or more precisely in the early hours of October 1, 1965, armed PKI men and members of Cakrabirawa, the President's security guard, set out to kidnap, torture and kill six top Army Generals. Their bodies were dumped in an abandoned well at Lubang Buaya, on the outskirts of Jakarta. The coup was staged in the wake of troop deployments to Kalimantan, at the height of Indonesia's confrontation with Malaysia. Moreover, at the time, many cabinet members were attending a celebration of the Chinese October Revolution in Beijing. It was during this power vacuum that the communists struck again.

Under instructions from General Soeharto, crack troops of the Army's Commando Regiment (RPKAD) freed the central radio station (RRI) and the telecommunication center from communist occupation.

Students made for the streets in militant demonstrations to fight for a three-point claim, or "Tritura," that aimed to ban the PKI, replace Soekarno's cabinet ministers, and reduce the prices of basic necessities. They set up a "street parliament" to gather the demands of the people.

Under these explosive conditions, President Soekarno eventually gave in and granted Soeharto full power to restore order and security in the country. The transfer of power was affected by a presidential order known as "the 11th of March order" of 1966. Soon afterwards, on March 12, 1966, General Soeharto banned the PKI. This decision was endorsed and sanctioned by virtue of the Provisional People's Consultative Assembly Decree Number XXV/MPRS/1966. He also formed a new cabinet, but Soekarno remained as Chief Executive. This brought dualism into the cabinet, particularly when Soekarno did not show support for the cabinet's program to establish political and economic stability. Hence, a special session of the Provisional People's Consultative Assembly (MPRS) was convened from March 7-12, 1967. The Assembly resolved to relieve Soekarno of his presidential duties and appointed Soeharto as Acting President, pending the election of a new President by an elected People's Consultative Assembly.

THE NEW ORDER GOVERNMENT

Ever since taking office in 1967, the New Order Government of President Soeharto was determined to return constitutional life by upholding the 1945 Constitution in a strict and consistent manner and by respecting Pancasila as the state philosophy and ideology.

To emerge from the political and economic legacy of Soekarno's Old Order, the new government set out to undertake the following:

1. To complete the restoration of order and security and to establish political stability.
2. To carry out economic rehabilitation.
3. To prepare a plan for national development and execute it with the emphasis on economic development.
4. To end confrontation and normalize diplomatic relations with Malaysia.
5. To rejoin to the United Nations, which Indonesia had quit in January 1965.
6. To consistently pursue an independent and active foreign policy.
7. To resolve the West Irian question.
8. To regain Indonesia's economic credibility overseas.
9. To hold general elections once every five years.
   

With regard to Malaysia, not only were relations normalized but Indonesia together with Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand joined to establish the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Further, Brunei Darussalam became the sixth member of ASEAN, while Vietnam was accepted as the seventh member of this regional organization followed suit by Myanmar, Kampochea and Laos. The objective of the association is the establishment of regional cooperation in the economic, social and cultural fields, but ASEAN also operates in the political area.

To prepare for national development, in addition to economic rehabilitation, Indonesia secured an agreement with creditor countries to reschedule an overseas debt of US$5 billion. With the recovery of the country's overseas credibility, Indonesia succeeded in the formation of a consortium of creditor countries to assist in her economic development. This consortium was known as the Inter-Governmental Group on Indonesia (IGGI) and included the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Britain and a number of West-European countries. Its annual meetings were held in Amsterdam under the chairmanship of the Netherlands. Currently, the IGGI has been replaced by the Consultative Group for Indonesia (CGI) consisting of the former members of IGGI (except the Netherlands) and five new creditors.

THE REFORM ORDER GOVERNMENT

Since the outset of the First Five-Year Development Plan in 1969, Indonesia under the New Order Government of President Soeharto had endeavored to achieve its national development goals. Indonesia, indeed, had been able to achieve substantial progress in various fields which had been enjoyed by the majority of the Indonesian people. Indonesia had gained success in the national development. Unfortunately, severe economic crisis, which began with the monetary crisis, struck Indonesia as of July 1997.

Since the middle of 1997, the people's standard of living dropped considerably. The decline in the people's standard of living was aggravated by various political tensions arising from the 1997 general elections. The political system which had been developed since 1966 turned out to be unable to accommodate the dynamism of the aspirations and interests of the community. This led to riots and disturbances. To a certain extend, they reflected the malfunctioning of the political order and of the government, finally causing this situation to develop into a political crisis.

A number of student demonstrations ensued, including the occupation of the People's Consultative Assembly/House of People's Representatives compound. They appealed for political and economic reform; demanded President Soeharto to step down and stamp out corruption, collusion and nepotism. Critical moments prevailed in the capital, Jakarta, and other towns from 12 to 21 May 1998.

On May 12, a tragedy happened in the Trisakti University Campus, causing the death of four students. On May 18, the leadership of the House suggested the President resign. The President's effort to accommodate the developing aspirations of the people by forming are form cabinet and a reform committee never materialized as there was no adequate support from various circles.

Finally, on May 21, 1998, President Soeharto, after a 32-year rule of the New Order Government resigned. Pursuant to Article 8 of the 1945 Constitution and the People's Consultative Assembly decree No. VII/1973, he handed over the country's leadership to Vice-President Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie. After the announcement, Habibie took his oath of office before Chief Justice Sarwata to become Indonesia's third President. Earlier President Soeharto disbanded the cabinet which he formed shortly after his reelection for a seventh five-year presidential term in March.

A day after his installment as the third president, Habibie formed the Reform Development Cabinet. He picked the ministers from the various political and social forces, including three politicians from the United Development Party (PPP) and the Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI), to provide the needed synergy.

President B.J. Habibie outlined the agenda for reform during his presidency as follows:

1. Rooting out corruption, collusion and nepotism, and create a clean government.
2. Reviewing the five political laws upon which the current political system is bound. They are the laws on mass organization, the House of Representatives (DPR), the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR), political parties, regional administrations and elections.
3. Implementing sweeping reform in all sectors, including in the political, economic, and legal fields, to enable the government to satisfy mounting demands for a strong and clean government.
4. Boosting output from the agriculture, agribusiness, export-oriented industry and tourism sectors.
5. Safeguarding the implementation of the 1998/99 state budget
6. Accelerating the bank restructuring program
7. Resolving the problem of corporate foreign debts.
8. Conducting a special session of the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR) in November 1998, followed by General Elections on May 1999.